13. Directions: From the seven statements below, select the statements that correctly characterize breathing during

　　wakefulness and those statements that correctly characterize breathing during sleep. Drag each answer choice you select into the appropriate box of the table. Two of the answer choices will NOT be used. This question is worth 3 points.

　　Adaptations of Annuals BF

　　Five of the phrases will NOT be used.

　　A. Woody structures

　　B. Explosive growth in wet years

　　C. Long, thin, shallow roots

　　D. Storage of water in plant tissue

　　E. Minimization of the amount of water used for

　　Adaptations of Perennials ADG

　　Four of the phrases will NOT be used,

　　A. Woody structures

　　B. Explosive growth in wet years

　　C. Long, thin, shallow roots

　　D. Storage of water in plant tissue

　　E. Minimization of the amount of water used for photosynthesis F. Short life cycle

　　G. Leaves designed to minimize water loss

　　Survival of Plants and Animals in Desert Conditions 沙漠環(huán)境中植物和動(dòng)物的生存

　　——翻譯by@英語(yǔ)詞匯精華 陳鵬飛

　　文章詞匯總結(jié)

　　☻常年生植物perennial;

　　☻一年生植物annual;

　　☻光合作用photosynthesis;

　　☻降水precipitation;

　　☻開花bloom;

　　☻養(yǎng)分nutrition;

　　☻枯萎wilt;

　　☻毛孔pore;

　　☻干旱drought;

　　☻干旱的arid;

　　☻休眠dormancy

　　文章中英文對(duì)照翻譯

　　The harsh conditions in deserts are intolerable for most plants and animals. Despite these conditions, however, many varieties of plants and animals have adapted to deserts in a

　　number of ways. Most plant tissues die if their water content falls too low: the nutrients that feed plants are transmitted by water; water is a raw material in the vital process of

　　photosynthesis; and water regulates the temperature of a plant by its ability to absorb heat and because water vapor lost to the atmosphere through the leaves helps to lower plant

　　temperatures. Water controls the volume of plant matter produced. The distribution of plants within different areas of desert is also controlled by water. Some areas, because of their soil texture, topographical position, or distance from rivers or groundwater, have virtually no water available to plants, whereas others do.

　　沙漠的嚴(yán)酷環(huán)境對(duì)于大部分的植物和動(dòng)物來說都是難以忍受的，盡管如此，很多不同種類的植物和動(dòng)物仍然能以各種方式適應(yīng)于沙漠的環(huán)境。如果含水量太低，大多數(shù)植物會(huì)死亡。水不僅輸送給植物養(yǎng)分，也是植物光合作用這個(gè)關(guān)鍵過程中的原材料;水通過吸收熱來調(diào)節(jié)植物的溫度，因?yàn)樗魵馔ㄟ^葉子進(jìn)入大氣可以降低植物的溫度。水控制著植物物質(zhì)的產(chǎn)量，也控制著植物在不同沙漠地區(qū)的分布。由于土壤質(zhì)地、地形位置或與河流、地下水的距離的因素，一些沙漠地區(qū)缺乏供給植物的水，而其他的區(qū)域卻有提供給植物的水。

　　The nature of plant life in deserts is also highly dependent on the fact that they have to adapt to the prevailing aridity. There are two general classes of vegetation: long-lived perennials, which may be succulent (water-storing) and are often dwarfed and woody, and annuals or ephemerals, which have a short life cycle and may form a fairly dense stand immediately after rain.

　　沙漠植物的特征與他們對(duì)普遍存在的干旱的適應(yīng)性相關(guān)。沙漠的植物大體分為兩類：生命較長(zhǎng)的常年生植物，這種植物含水多，通常是矮小的木本植物;一年生植物或者短生植物，這種植物生命周期比較短，可以在雨后形成一個(gè)密集高大的植物群。

　　The ephemeral plants evade drought. Given a year of favorable precipitation, such plants will develop vigorously and produce large numbers of flowers and fruit. This replenishes the seed

　　content of the desert soil. The seeds then lie dormant until the next wet year, when the desert blooms again.

　　短生植物可以避開干旱時(shí)期，若在降水充沛的年份，這種植物可以茂盛的生長(zhǎng)，并繁殖出大量花和果實(shí)，從而補(bǔ)充了沙漠土壤中種子的含量。然后這些種子會(huì)休眠到下一個(gè)沙漠植物再次開花的濕潤(rùn)的年份。

　　The perennial vegetation adjusts to the aridity by means of various avoidance mechanisms. Most desert plants are probably best classified as xerophytes. They possess drought-resisting adaptations: loss of water through the leaves is reduced by means of dense hairs covering waxy leaf surfaces, by the closure of pores during the hottest times to reduce water loss, and by the rolling up or shedding of leaves at the beginning of the dry season. Some xerophytes, the succulents (including cacti), store water in their structures. Another way of countering drought is to have a limited amount of mass above ground and to have extensive root networks below ground. It is not unusual for the roots of some desert perennials to extend downward more than ten meters. Some plants are woody in type —an adaptation designed to prevent collapse of the plant tissue when water stress produces wilting. Another class of desert plant is the phreatophyte. These have adapted to the environment by the development of long taproots that penetrate downward until they approach the assured water supply provided by groundwater. Among these plants are the date palm, tamarisk, and mesquite. They commonly grow near stream channels, springs, or on the margins of lakes.

　　常年生植物通過各種回避機(jī)制來適應(yīng)于干旱。更確切的說，大部分沙漠植物屬于旱生植物。他們具備抗旱的適應(yīng)性：覆蓋蠟質(zhì)葉子表面的濃密的茸毛，在最炎熱的時(shí)期關(guān)閉細(xì)孔，在干旱季節(jié)初期卷起葉子或者脫落葉子，這些都可以減少經(jīng)過葉子的水的流失。一些旱生植物，如肉質(zhì)植物(包括仙人掌)在他們自身的結(jié)構(gòu)組織中儲(chǔ)存水。另外一個(gè)抵御干旱的方式是在地表上限制植物生長(zhǎng)，在地表下有錯(cuò)綜復(fù)雜的根系網(wǎng)絡(luò)。一些沙漠的常年生植物的根能夠向下伸展十多米深。有些植物屬于木質(zhì)植物，這一適應(yīng)性的特征可防止水壓導(dǎo)致植物枯萎時(shí)植物組織的崩潰。另外一類沙漠植物是深根植物，這種植物通過繁衍長(zhǎng)的主根來適應(yīng)環(huán)境，這些主根能夠直達(dá)地下水提供的充足水源。海棗樹、檉柳牡豆樹屬于這類植物。他們通常生長(zhǎng)在河道河床，泉水或者湖泊的附近。

　　Animals also have to adapt to desert conditions, and they may do it through two forms of behavioral adaptation: they either escape or retreat. Escape involves such actions as

　　aestivation, a condition of prolonged dormancy, or torpor, during which animals reduce their metabolic rate and body temperature during the hot season or during very dry spells.

　　動(dòng)物同樣需要適應(yīng)沙漠的環(huán)境，它們以主要兩種形式來適應(yīng)：逃避或撤離。逃避的行為如夏眠，動(dòng)物通過長(zhǎng)時(shí)間的休眠或蟄伏在最炎熱或最干燥的時(shí)期減少他們的代謝率和體溫。

　　Seasonal migration is another form of escape, especially for large mammals or birds. The term retreat is applied to the short-term escape behavior of desert animals, and it usually

　　assumes the pattern of a daily rhythm. Birds shelter in nests, rock overhangs, trees, and dense shrubs to avoid the hottest hours of the day, while mammals like the kangaroo rat burrow underground.

　　季節(jié)性的遷徙是另一種逃避的方式，尤其是對(duì)于大型的哺乳動(dòng)物和鳥類。這里的術(shù)語(yǔ)“撤離”是指沙漠動(dòng)物的短期逃避行為，常常以天為節(jié)奏的模式。鳥類隱匿在鳥窩，巖石懸垂處，樹叢中和濃密的灌木來躲避一天中最炎熱的時(shí)段，而像更格盧鼠等哺乳動(dòng)物會(huì)藏到地下的洞穴中

　　Some animals have behavioral, physiological, and morphological (structural) adaptations that enable them to withstand extreme conditions. For example, the ostrich has plumage that is so constructed that the feathers are long but not too dense. When conditions are hot, the ostrich erects them on its back, thus increasing the thickness of the barrier between solar radiation and the skin. The sparse distribution of the feathers, however, also allows considerable lateral air movement over the skin surface, thereby permitting further heat loss by convection.

　　Furthermore, the birds orient themselves carefully with regard to the Sun and gently flap their wings to increase convection cooling.

　　一些動(dòng)物在行為，生理和形態(tài)學(xué)上的適應(yīng)能力允許他們承受極端的環(huán)境，例如，鴕鳥的羽毛具有這種結(jié)構(gòu)特征：毛很長(zhǎng)但卻不濃密。在炎熱的環(huán)境，鴕鳥就會(huì)豎起背部的羽毛，以此增加羽毛這層太陽(yáng)輻射和皮膚之間的屏障的厚度。羽毛稀疏的分布，同樣使得皮膚

　　表面橫向空氣流動(dòng)得以進(jìn)行，而羽毛的熱量也進(jìn)一步通過對(duì)流散發(fā)。此外，鳥類根據(jù)太陽(yáng)的位置謹(jǐn)慎調(diào)整著的自己的方向，輕輕地拍打著翅膀增加對(duì)流降溫。

　　Sumer and the First Cities of the Ancient Near East

　　PARAGRAPH 1

　　The earliest of the city states of the ancient Near East appeared at the southern end of the Mesopotamian plain, the area between the Tigris and Euphrates rivers in what is now Iraq. It was here that the civilization known as Sumer emerged in its earliest form in the fifth

　　millennium. At first sight, the plain did not appear to be a likely home for a civilization. There were few natural resources, no timber, stone, or metals. Rainfall was limited, and what water there was rushed across the plain in the annual flood of melted snow. As the plain fell only 20 meters in 500 kilometers, the beds of the rivers shifted constantly. It was this that made the organization of irrigation, particularly the building of canals to channel and preserve the water, essential. Once this was done and the silt carried down by the rivers was planted, the rewards were rich: four to five times what rain-fed earth would produce. It was these conditions that allowed an elite to emerge, probably as an organizing class, and to sustain itself through the control of surplus crops.

　　PARAGRAPH 2

　　It is difficult to isolate the factors that led to the next development—the emergence of urban settlements. The earliest, that of Eridu, about 4500 B.C.E., and Uruk, a thousand years later, center on impressive temple complexes built of mud brick. In some way, the elite had associated themselves with the power of the gods. Uruk, for instance, had two patron

　　gods—Anu, the god of the sky and sovereign of all other gods, and inanna, a goddess of love and war—and there were others, patrons of different cities. Human beings were at their mercy. The biblical story of the Flood may originate in Sumer. In the earliest version, the gods destroy the human race because its clamor had been so disturbing to them.

　　PARAGRAPH 3

　　It used to be believed that before 3000 B.C.E. the political and economic life of the cities was centered on their temples, but it now seems probable that the cities had secular rulers from earliest times. Within the city lived administrators, craftspeople, and merchants. (Trading was important, as so many raw materials, the semiprecious stones for the decoration of the temples, timbers for roofs, and all metals, had to be imported.) An increasingly sophisticated system of administration led in about 3300 B.C.E. to the appearance of writing. The earliest script was based on logograms, with a symbol being used to express a whole word. The logograms were incised on damp clay tablets with a stylus with a wedge shape at its end. (The Romans called the shape cuneus and this gives the script its name of cuneiform.) Two thousand logograms have been recorded from these early centuries of writing. A more economical approach was to use a sign to express not a whole word but a single syllable. (To take an example: the Sumerian word for" head" was "sag." Whenever a word including a syllable in which the sound "sag" was to be written, the sign for "sag" could be used to express that syllable with the remaining syllables of the word expressed by other signs.) By 2300 B.C.E. the number of signs required had been reduced to 600, and the range of words that could be expressed had widened. Texts dealing with economic matters predominated, as they always had done; but at this point works of theology, g literature, history, and law also appeared.

　　PARAGRAPH 4

　　Other innovations of the late fourth millennium include the wheel, probably developed first as a more efficient way of making pottery and then transferred to transport. A tablet engraved about 3000 B.C.E. provides the earliest known example from Sumer, a roofed boxlike sledge mounted on four solid wheels. A major development was the discovery, again about 3000

　　B.C.E., that if copper, which had been known in Mesopotamia since about 3500 B.C.E., was mixed with tin, a much harder metal, bronze, would result. Although copper and stone tools continued to be used, bronze was far more successful in creating sharp edges that could be used as anything from saws and scythes to weapons. The period from 3000 to 1000 B.C.E., when the use of bronze became I widespread, is normally referred to as the Bronze Age.

　　PARAGRAPH 1

　　The earliest of the city states of the ancient Near East appeared at the southern end of the Mesopotamian plain, the area between the Tigris and Euphrates rivers in what is now Iraq. It was here that the civilization known as Sumer emerged in its earliest form in the fifth

　　millennium. At first sight, the plain did not appear to be a likely home for a civilization. There were few natural resources, no timber, stone, or metals. Rainfall was limited, and what water there was rushed across the plain in the annual flood of melted snow. As the plain fell only 20 meters in 500 kilometers, the beds of the rivers shifted constantly. It was this that made the organization of irrigation, particularly the building of canals to channel and preserve the water, essential. Once this was done and the silt carried down by the rivers was planted, the rewards were rich: four to five times what rain-fed earth would produce. It was these conditions that allowed an elite to emerge, probably as an organizing class, and to sustain itself through the control of surplus crops.

　　1、Which of the following is NOT mentioned in paragraph 1 as a disadvantage of the Mesopotamian plain?

　　There was not very much rainfall for most of the year.

　　Melting snow caused flooding every year.

　　The silt deposited by rivers damaged crops.

　　Timber, stone and metals were not readily available.

　　2、According to paragraph 1, which of the following made it possible for an elite to emerge? New crops were developed that were better suited to conditions on the Mesopotamian plain. The richest individuals managed to gain control of the most valuable cropland.

　　Control over the few available natural resources made some people four to five times richer than everyone else.

　　The building of canals to increase agricultural output required organization.

　　3、The word "sustain" in the passage is closest in meaning to

　　defend

　　promote

　　maintain

　　transform

　　PARAGRAPH 2

　　It is difficult to isolate the factors that led to the next development—the emergence of urban settlements. The earliest, that of Eridu, about 4500 B.C.E., and Uruk, a thousand years later, center on impressive temple complexes built of mud brick. In some way, the elite had associated themselves with the power of the gods. Uruk, for instance, had two patron

　　gods—Anu, the god of the sky and sovereign of all other gods, and inanna, a goddess of love and war—and there were others, patrons of different cities. Human beings were at their mercy. The biblical story of the Flood may originate in Sumer. In the earliest version, the gods destroy the human race because its clamor had been so disturbing to them.

　　4、According to paragraph 2, Eridu and Uruk are examples of urban settlements that lacked the features usually found in other early urban settlements f

　　developed around religious buildings

　　grew much more rapidly than most of the urban settlements found in Sumer

　　were mysteriously destroyed and abandoned

　　5、The word "sovereign" in the passage is closest in meaning to

　　counselor

　　master

　　defender

　　creator

　　PARAGRAPH 3

　　It used to be believed that before 3000 B.C.E. the political and economic life of the cities was centered on their temples, but it now seems probable that the cities had secular rulers from earliest times. Within the city lived administrators, craftspeople, and merchants. (Trading was important, as so many raw materials, the semiprecious stones for the decoration of the temples, timbers for roofs, and all metals, had to be imported.) An increasingly sophisticated system of administration led in about 3300 B.C.E. to the appearance of writing. The earliest script was based on logograms, with a symbol being used to express a whole word. The logograms were incised on damp clay tablets with a stylus with a wedge shape at its end. (The Romans called the shape cuneus and this gives the script its name of cuneiform.) Two thousand logograms

　　have been recorded from these early centuries of writing. A more economical approach was to use a sign to express not a whole word but a single syllable. (To take an example: the Sumerian word for" head" was "sag." Whenever a word including a syllable in which the sound "sag" was to be written, the sign for "sag" could be used to express that syllable with the remaining syllables of the word expressed by other signs.) By 2300 B.C.E. the number of signs required had been reduced to 600, and the range of words that could be expressed had widened. Texts dealing with economic matters predominated, as they always had done; but at this point works of theology, g literature, history, and law also appeared.

　　6、According to paragraph 3, which of the following led to the appearance of writing? An increasingly sophisticated administrative system

　　Coordination between secular and religious leaders

　　The large volume of trade, particularly imports

　　A rapidly expanding and changing population Paragraph 3 is marked with

　　7、In paragraph 3, why does the author provide the information that the number of signs in use had dropped from 2,000 to 600 by 2300 B.C.E.?

　　To argue that the development of writing involved periods of growth followed by periods of decline

　　To demonstrate that earlier written texts used a larger vocabulary than later texts, which were aimed at a broader audience |

　　To support the claim that the range of words expressed by logograms varied widely depending on time period and type of text

　　To provide evidence for the increased efficiency of using signs to express syllables rather than whole words

　　8、According to paragraph 3, ancient texts most commonly dealt with

　　theology

　　literature

　　economics

　　law

　　PARAGRAPH 4

　　Other innovations of the late fourth millennium include the wheel, probably developed first as a more efficient way of making pottery and then transferred to transport. A tablet engraved about 3000 B.C.E. provides the earliest known example from Sumer, a roofed boxlike sledge mounted on four solid wheels. A major development was the discovery, again about 3000

　　B.C.E., that if copper, which had been known in Mesopotamia since about 3500 B.C.E., was mixed with tin, a much harder metal, bronze, would result. Although copper and stone tools continued to be used, bronze was far more successful in creating sharp edges that could be used as anything from saws and scythes to weapons. The period from 3000 to 1000 B.C.E., when the use of bronze became I widespread, is normally referred to as the Bronze Age.

　　9、According to paragraph 4, the earliest wheels probably

　　were first developed in areas outside Mesopotamia

　　were used to make pottery

　　appeared on boxlike sledges

　　were used to transport goods between cities

　　10、The word "engraved* in the passage is closest in meaning to

　　carved

　　produced

　　dated

　　discovered

　　11、Which of the sentences below best expresses the essential information in the highlighted sentence in the passage? Incorrect choices change the meaning in important ways or leave out essential information.

　　Also around 3000 B.C.E., it was discovered that mixing copper, known from about 3500

　　B.C.E., with tin would create a much harder metal known as bronze.

　　Although copper had been known since 3500 B.C.E in Mesopotamia, the discovery of bronze did not occur until around 3000 B.C.E.

　　Another major development around 3000 B.C.E. was the discovery that copper could be mixed with a much harder metal known as tin.

　　The development of bronze by mixing copper and tin probably occurred around 3000 B.C.E. but may have happened as early as 3500 B.C.E.

　　12、The word "widespread" in the passage is closest in meaning to

　　obvious

　　significant

　　necessary

　　common

　　13、Look at the four squares [ ■ ]that indicate where the following sentence could be added to the passage.

　　City life was diverse, and the population was engaged in a variety of occupations.

　　PARAGRAPH 3

　　It used to be believed that before 3000 B.C.E. the political and economic life of the cities was centered on their temples, but it now seems probable that the cities had secular rulers from earliest times. ■ Within the city lived administrators, craftspeople, and merchants. (Trading was important, as so many raw materials, the semiprecious stones for the decoration of the temples, timbers for roofs, and all metals, had to be imported.) ■ An increasingly

　　sophisticated system of administration led in about 3300 B.C.E. to the appearance of writing. ■ The earliest script was based on logograms, with a symbol being used to express a whole word. ■ The logograms were incised on damp clay tablets with a stylus with a wedge shape at its end. (The Romans called the shape cuneus and this gives the script its name of cuneiform.) Two thousand logograms have been recorded from these early centuries of writing. A more economical approach was to use a sign to express not a whole word but a single syllable. (To take an example: the Sumerian word for" head" was "sag." Whenever a word including a syllable in which the sound "sag" was to be written, the sign for "sag" could be used to express that syllable with the remaining syllables of the word expressed by other signs.) By 2300 B.C.E. the number of signs required had been reduced to 600, and the range of words that could be expressed had widened. Texts dealing with economic matters predominated, as they always had done; but at this point works of theology, g literature, history, and law also appeared.

　　14、Direction: An introductory sentence for a brief summary of the passage is provided below. Complete the summary by selecting the THREE answer choices that express the most

　　important ideas in the passage. Some sentences do not belong in the summary because they express ideas that are not presented in the passage or are minor ideas in the passage. This question is worth 2 points.

　　Irrigation made it possible for the civilization known as sumer to arise on the Mesopotamian plain in the fifth millennium B.C.E.

　　Answer Choices

　　A. The scarcity of natural resources on the plain made it necessary for a powerful elite to emerge and take charge

　　of trade and imports.

　　B. The economy of each city was based on a craft such as pottery or metal working, and the city of Eridu was

　　known for its saws, scythes and weapons.

　　C. Writing appeared in the form of logograms and later developed into a system using signs to represent syllables

　　rather than whole words.

　　D. Priests were powerful figures in the ancient civilization and controlled the political and economic life of the

　　cities.

　　E. The earliest city states had one or more patron gods and were built around central temple complexes.

　　F. The development of the wheel and the creation of bronze were important innovations in Sumer

　　Sumer and the First Cities of the Ancient Near East

　　蘇美爾和古代近東的第一個(gè)城市

　　翻譯by陳鵬飛

　　文章詞匯總結(jié)

　　☻城邦國(guó)家city state

　　☻近東Near East

　　☻文明civilization

　　☻耕種cultivate

　　☻灌溉irrigation

　　☻銅copper

　　☻木材timber

　　☻陶瓷pottery

　　☻石器時(shí)代Stone Age

　　☻青銅器時(shí)代Bronze Age

　　☻鐵器時(shí)代the Iron Age

　　文章中英文對(duì)照翻譯

　　The earliest of the city states of the ancient Near East appeared at the southern end of the Mesopotamian plain, the area between the Tigris and Euphrates rivers in what is now Iraq. It was here that the civilization known as Sumer emerged in its earliest form in the fifth

　　millennium. At first sight, the plain did not appear to be a likely home for a civilization. There were few natural resources, no timber, stone, or metals. Rainfall was limited, and what water there was rushed across the plain in the annual flood of melted snow. As the plain fell only 20 meters in 500 kilometers, the beds of the rivers shifted constantly. It was this that made the organization of irrigation, particularly the building of canals to channel and preserve the water, essential. Once this was done and the silt carried down by the rivers was planted, the rewards were rich: four to five times what rain-fed earth would produce. It was these conditions that allowed elite to emerge, probably as an organizing class, and to sustain itself through the control of surplus crops.

　　古代近東地區(qū)最早的城邦出現(xiàn)在美索不達(dá)米亞平原的南端。在底格里斯河和幼發(fā)拉底河之間的這片區(qū)域就是現(xiàn)在的伊拉克。在公元前五千年蘇美爾等文明的早期形式從這里崛起。乍一看，這個(gè)平原并不像是一個(gè)文明的搖籃。這里的自然資源有限，缺乏木材、石料和金屬，降水量有限，而由于融雪造成的洪水每年都會(huì)在平原上泛濫。因?yàn)槊浪鞑贿_(dá)米亞平原在500公里內(nèi)置只下降20米，平原的河床不斷在發(fā)生變化。正是這點(diǎn)使得灌溉系統(tǒng)，尤其是建立水渠來引導(dǎo)和保護(hù)水資源變得尤為重要。一旦這些灌溉工程完成，由河流沖擊下來的淤泥就會(huì)沉積在此處，帶來了豐厚的回報(bào)：產(chǎn)生4-5倍雨水滋潤(rùn)的土

　　壤。正是這種環(huán)境允許一個(gè)可能是管理階層的精英社會(huì)的出現(xiàn)，他們通過對(duì)余糧的控制利用來養(yǎng)活自己。

　　It is difficult to isolate the factors that led to the next development—the emergence of urban settlements. The earliest, that of Eridu, about 4500 B.C.E., and Uruk, a thousand years later, center on impressive temple complexes built of mud brick. In some way, the elite had associated themselves with the power of the gods. Uruk, for instance, had two patron

　　gods—Anu, the god of the sky and sovereign of all other gods, and Inanna, a goddess of love and war—and there were others, patrons of different cities. Human beings were at their mercy. The biblical story of the Flood may originate in Sumer. In the earliest version, the gods destroy the human race because its clamor had been so disturbing to them.

　　促使蘇美爾文明進(jìn)一步發(fā)展的一個(gè)要素是城市定居點(diǎn)的興起，把這一點(diǎn)隔開來是很難的。公元前4500年的最早的城市埃利都以及一千年后興起的城市烏魯克的城市中心建有泥磚砌成的雄偉的廟宇建筑。在某種意義上，這些精英階層把自己與神靈的力量結(jié)合在一起。例如烏魯克有兩個(gè)守護(hù)神：作為天神以及眾神首領(lǐng)的安努和愛與戰(zhàn)爭(zhēng)的女神伊南娜，不同的城市還有其他的守護(hù)神。人在神的掌控下生存。圣經(jīng)中關(guān)于洪水的故事可能起源于蘇美爾，在這個(gè)故事的早期版本中，因?yàn)槿祟愄[令人不安，所以神毀滅人類。

　　It used to be believed that before 3000 B.C.E. the political and economic life of the cities was centered on their temples, but it now seems probable that the cities had secular rulers from earliest times. City life was diverse, and the population was engaged in a variety of

　　occupations. Within the city lived administrators, craftspeople, and merchants. (Trading was important, as so many raw materials, the semiprecious stones for the decoration of the temples, timbers for roofs, and all metals, had to be imported.)

　　人們?cè)?jīng)認(rèn)為公元3000前城市的政治和經(jīng)濟(jì)制度的中心是寺廟，但是現(xiàn)在人們認(rèn)為這些城市早期就有世俗的統(tǒng)治者。城市的生活是豐富多彩的，市民從事著各種職業(yè)，城市里住著行政官員、手工藝者和商人。 貿(mào)(易占有著重要的地位，因?yàn)楹芏嘣牧希聫R裝飾用的次等寶石，屋頂?shù)哪静囊约八械慕饘俣急仨氝M(jìn)口)。

　　An increasingly sophisticated system of administration led in about 3300 B.C.E. to the

　　appearance of writing. The earliest script was based on logograms, with a symbol being used

　　to express a whole word. The logograms were incised on damp clay tablets with a stylus with a wedge shape at its end. (The Romans called the shape cuneus and this gives the script its name of cuneiform.) Two thousand logograms have been recorded from these early centuries of writing. A more economical approach was to use a sign to express not a whole word but a single syllable. (To take an example: the Sumerian word for " head” was “sag.” Whenever a word including a syllable in which the sound “sag” was to be written, the sign for “sag" could be used to express that syllable with the remaining syllables of the word expressed by other signs.) By 2300 B.C.E. the number of signs required had been reduced to 600, and the range of words that could be expressed had widened. Texts dealing with economic matters

　　predominated, as they always had done; but at this point works of theology, literature, history, and law also appeared.

　　約公元前3300年前，日益復(fù)雜的行政管理制度促使了書寫的出現(xiàn)。最早期的手寫體以縮記符為基礎(chǔ)，即用一個(gè)符號(hào)來表達(dá)整個(gè)單詞。縮記符的末端呈楔形，被鐵筆刻在潮濕的泥石板上。(羅馬人把這種形狀稱之為楔形并把這種手寫體稱為楔形文字)。這些早期的書寫文字中有兩千的縮記符被記載下來。后來有了一個(gè)更加實(shí)用的方法：使用一個(gè)符號(hào)來表達(dá)一個(gè)單一的音節(jié)而不是整個(gè)單詞(舉個(gè)例子：蘇米爾單詞sag的意思是“頭”， 每當(dāng)一個(gè)包含“sag”音節(jié)的單詞被寫下來，“sag”這個(gè)符號(hào)都和其他符號(hào)所表達(dá)的剩下的音節(jié)一起表達(dá))。在公元前2300年，所需的符號(hào)數(shù)量下降到600個(gè)，單詞表達(dá)的范圍擴(kuò)大了。有關(guān)經(jīng)濟(jì)方面的文本一如既往地占到大部分。但此時(shí)有關(guān)神學(xué)，文學(xué)，歷史，法律的文字記載同樣出現(xiàn)了。

　　Other innovations of the late fourth millennium include the wheel, probably developed first as a more efficient way of making pottery and then transferred to transport. A tablet engraved about 3000 B.C.E. provides the earliest known example from Sumer, a roofed boxlike sledge mounted on four solid wheels. A major development was the discovery, again about 3000

　　B.C.E., that if copper, which had been known in Mesopotamia since about 3500 B.C.E., was mixed with tin, a much harder metal, bronze, would result. Although copper and stone tools continued to be used, bronze was far more successful in creating sharp edges that could be used as anything from saws and scythes to weapons. The period from 3000 to 1000 B.C.E., when the use of bronze became widespread, is normally referred to as the Bronze Age.

　　公元前四千年晚期的其他創(chuàng)新還包括陶輪，陶輪可能在最初用于提高陶器的生產(chǎn)效率，然后被用到交通運(yùn)輸上。在大約公元前3000年雕刻來自蘇美爾的一塊石板上提供了已

　　知最早的例證：一輛有頂?shù)暮行窝┣帘话卜旁谒膫€(gè)實(shí)心的輪子上。大約公元前3000年的另外一個(gè)重大進(jìn)展是青銅的發(fā)現(xiàn)。銅在約公元前3500年前就為米索達(dá)比亞人所知，如果銅和錫混合在一起，就能制造出更加堅(jiān)硬的金屬：青銅。雖然銅和石器繼續(xù)被使用，但是青銅更容易形成鋒利的邊緣，可以用于制造鋸、大鐮刀和武器等工具上。公元前3000年到1000年青銅被廣泛使用的這段時(shí)期通常被稱為青銅時(shí)代。

　　TPO26 ENERGY AND INDUSTRIAL REVOLUTION 1. 目的題，讀highlight所在句，說英國(guó)有煤，但沒法變成能量來運(yùn)行機(jī)器，選項(xiàng)C同時(shí)說了

　　由煤木有能量，是正確答案。A錯(cuò)在不是reject，原文承認(rèn)缺能量，A說反;B錯(cuò)在原文沒講other energy resources怎么樣;D錯(cuò)在coal mining變成重要行業(yè)沒講

　　2. 以the problem of energy做關(guān)鍵詞定位至第二句，但這句話沒有內(nèi)容，于是往后看，下一

　　句講依靠動(dòng)植物和人作為能量的來源，看完這句話最大的可能是選D，但原文沒說動(dòng)植物和人的能源不夠，所以D不對(duì)。排除法，A說風(fēng)和水能沒有有效利用，而原文第四句說越來越多的使用，所以A錯(cuò);C跟上一題相反，錯(cuò);B跟上一題相同，正確

　　3. A的huge quantity of raw cotton定位至倒數(shù)第三句，說進(jìn)口增加了230倍，正確，不選;

　　B定位至第五句，說機(jī)械化越來越多，正確，不選;C的mill location定位至第四句，說mill

　　不用在水邊了，也就是C說的更多可能的位置，正確，不選;也同樣在這句話里說大的mills，跟D說的相反，所以D錯(cuò)，選

　　4. apparent in明顯，所以正確答案是A的clearly seen in。詞根是pare，意思是可見，想

　　想透明transparent和appear。代入，原文講轉(zhuǎn)向不斷增加的mechanization是什么樣的通過進(jìn)口raw cotton，緊接著后面就用數(shù)字講進(jìn)口cotton怎么怎么樣，說明很顯著。B幫忙和C相關(guān)明顯不通。前后兩句沒有明顯的先后關(guān)系，所以follow不通

　　5. 以most important export和1850做關(guān)鍵詞定位至倒數(shù)第二句和倒數(shù)第三句，說raw cotton

　　進(jìn)口增加了230倍，cotton cloth變成了最重要的產(chǎn)品，占了出口的一半，所以正確答案是B的cotton cloth。注意A的raw cotton是進(jìn)口的

　　6. consequent結(jié)果的，所以正確答案是resulting。之前有講蒸汽機(jī)的成功result in了煤炭

　　需求的增加，和consequent煤炭生產(chǎn)的增加，需求增加當(dāng)然導(dǎo)致生產(chǎn)增加，所以正確答案是A，C和D完全不對(duì)，A和B相比A更好

　　7. 問整段的，看首尾。首句講1700年代瓦特發(fā)明了蒸汽機(jī)，隨著越來越便宜，應(yīng)用越來越廣;

　　尾句說steam engine的成功導(dǎo)致煤炭需求和生產(chǎn)的增加。MS沒有正確答案，可采用排除法，首先沒講除英國(guó)之外的其他國(guó)家，所以A和B都不對(duì)，C說一個(gè)行業(yè)不能引起工業(yè)革命，原文也沒講。D正確的原因是煤炭的應(yīng)用解決了能源問題，正確，不記得的話看看第一段的末尾 8. 以coke做關(guān)鍵詞定位至第二句，講在制鐵的過程中，coke替代了charcoal，但沒講coke

　　能干嘛，所以往下看，說impurity隨著coke的使用被燒掉了，也就是除雜質(zhì)，所以正確答案是C，B和D的machine沒講;A說把木頭變成charcoal，原文也沒說

　　9. A的steam-driven bellows定位至第二句，正確，不選;B的1850s和Britain定位至第五

　　句，說英國(guó)的產(chǎn)量等于其他國(guó)家產(chǎn)量之和，當(dāng)然是最大生產(chǎn)國(guó)，所以B正確，不選;C的different shapes and sizes定位至第四句，正確，不選;D的price沒講，錯(cuò)，選 10. initiated開始，所以正確答案是D。代入，說steam engine的到來怎么了鐵路運(yùn)輸?shù)膹氐?/p>

　　改變，能說得通的只有B和D。因?yàn)橹皼]有說到變化，所以不是加速，開始了一種全新的變化更好些

　　11. 以transformation in rail transportation做關(guān)鍵詞定位至第四句和第五句，說隨著

　　transportation改善，能到達(dá)更遠(yuǎn)更大的國(guó)內(nèi)市場(chǎng)，導(dǎo)致更大的銷量和更大的工廠，所以正確答案是C。A的rural laborers，B的ocean shipping和D的wage原文都沒有有說 12. accustomed to習(xí)慣，所以正確答案是B，used to意思完全一樣。不認(rèn)識(shí)的同學(xué)看custom，

　　風(fēng)俗習(xí)慣，前面的ac前綴和后面的ed均沒有實(shí)際意義。代入，說鐵路建設(shè)提供的工作機(jī)會(huì)

　　吸引了工人，這些工人是怎么樣季節(jié)性遷徙的，C厭倦和D鼓勵(lì)說不通。A需要和B習(xí)慣就要看詞匯量了

　　13. 此題名詞過渡不容易找，只能找到動(dòng)詞improve，所以正確答案非B即C。B之后有as

　　transportation improved，也就是給出improve之后的結(jié)果，應(yīng)該是先有improve后有結(jié)果，所以正確答案是B

　　14. For years選項(xiàng)與首段第二句相反，錯(cuò)

　　The introduction選項(xiàng)對(duì)應(yīng)最后一段，正確

　　An expansion選項(xiàng)中的outside Great Britain怎么樣原文沒講，錯(cuò)

　　By 1850選項(xiàng)對(duì)應(yīng)原文第二段和第三段，正確

　　Since the basic選項(xiàng)對(duì)應(yīng)原文最后一段后半部分，正確

　　By the end選項(xiàng)中的工廠找不到工人跟上increasing sales沒說，錯(cuò)

　　SURVIVAL OF PLANTS AND ANIMALS IN DESERT CONDITIONS

　　1. A選項(xiàng)的sunlight原文沒有提到，所以錯(cuò)誤，選;B項(xiàng)不容易找，可以找完C和D之后依靠

　　并列在第三句的冒號(hào)之后找到，原文講的是降低溫度，也就是防止overheated，所以B正確，不選;C和D都在第三句的冒號(hào)之后，都正確，不選

　　2. 以dry year和ephemeral做關(guān)鍵詞定位至首句，但只看這句話沒有答案，于是看最后一句，

　　講植物種子直到下個(gè)wet year之前都dormant，也就是dry year的時(shí)候它們休眠，所以正確答案是B。注意C有迷惑性，雖然原文提到了wet year，但沒有講干濕年份進(jìn)行比較，所以C錯(cuò);A犯了跟C相同的錯(cuò)誤;D錯(cuò)在原文沒有把ephemeral跟perennial進(jìn)行比較

　　3. 問兩段關(guān)系，看開頭。第二段開頭說植物需要適應(yīng)沙漠的干旱環(huán)境，第二句說有兩類;第三

　　段開頭講其中一類，因此應(yīng)該是第二段總述，第三段分述，所以正確答案是B。A錯(cuò)在第三段沒有scientific explanation;C錯(cuò)在第三段不是講分類的問題;D錯(cuò)在第三段講的是第二段兩個(gè)分類中的一個(gè)，而不是第三類

　　4. vigorously活潑地，精力旺盛地，所以正確答案是strong。代入，原文說在降水多的時(shí)候，

　　植物怎么生長(zhǎng)，這個(gè)憑常識(shí)也知道降水多的時(shí)候植物長(zhǎng)的好吧，不認(rèn)識(shí)precipitation的同學(xué)可以看后面的并列，叫做產(chǎn)生大量的花和果實(shí)，還是可以推出長(zhǎng)得好。

　　5. countering反，抵御，抵抗，所以正確答案是C。counter本身就表示反對(duì)，想想encounter，

　　counteract，counterbalance，還有著名游戲CS。不知道的同學(xué)代入，另外一種怎么樣干旱的方法是植物地上部分小地下部分大，地下部分大吸收水分多，是應(yīng)對(duì)干旱的方法。A消除干旱和B利用干旱明顯不通;D經(jīng)歷干旱也不要什么特殊的方法，不對(duì)

　　6. 以root systems that are extraordinarily well developed做關(guān)鍵詞定位至第五句，也

　　就是上個(gè)詞匯題的那句，說另外一種抗擊干旱的方法是植物地上部分小地下部分大，所以正確答案是A。B剛好說反;C的nonwoody和D的water都不在定位句中

　　7. assured確定的，經(jīng)過證實(shí)的，所以正確答案是guaranteed。詞根是sure，所以肯定與確

　　定有關(guān)，pure跟deep就完全不對(duì);不認(rèn)識(shí)diminished的同學(xué)至少看到詞中間有個(gè)mini，跟小或者少有關(guān)，所以也不對(duì)

　　8. 以date palm, tamarisk and mesqute做關(guān)鍵詞定位至倒數(shù)第二句，這句盡管沒法做答案，

　　但these告訴我們和前句有關(guān)，往前看又發(fā)現(xiàn)一個(gè)these，于是繼續(xù)往前，終于讀到倒數(shù)第四句說另一種沙漠植物是ph，所以正確答案是C，其他都沒說

　　9. 提取主干，去掉during which從句得到escape的方法包括aestivation或者torpor。很

　　容易排除B和D，因?yàn)锽說不用aestivation，D說suffer;C最明顯的錯(cuò)誤是減少metabolic rate or body temperature，而原文講的是metabolic rate and body temperature，所以正確答案是A

　　10. 以desert animals retreat做關(guān)鍵詞定位至首句，說包含兩種方法，一是escape，二是

　　retreat，但接下來的整段都在講escape，沒有retreat的事兒，不知道是不是我的理解有問題，這道題真正的答案應(yīng)該在下一段，下一段第二句開始講retreat，尾句講鳥retreat為了躲避炎熱，哺乳動(dòng)物躲到洞里，也就是說retreat是為了避暑，正確答案是A。如果沒有看到下一段的同學(xué)，這段最后一句講escape發(fā)生在炎熱或者干燥的時(shí)期，同樣可以推出躲避陽(yáng)光，這是個(gè)infer題

　　11. 以ostrich做關(guān)鍵詞定位至第二句和第三句，第三句說當(dāng)炎熱的時(shí)候，ostrich會(huì)豎起它們背上的羽毛，所以正確答案是D。B沒提到feather，錯(cuò);A說feather短，錯(cuò);C的both blabla原文沒說，錯(cuò)

　　12. 暫缺

　　13. Annual跟Perennial主要在第二至第四段講到

　　Woody選項(xiàng)在第二段第二句剛講到分類的時(shí)候，屬于perennial

　　Explosive選項(xiàng)在第二段最后以及整個(gè)第三段都有講到，盡管不是原詞，但說到一旦降水多就立刻生長(zhǎng)的很好，也就是explosive了，所以屬于annual

　　Long選項(xiàng)錯(cuò)，因?yàn)樵恼fextensive root network是應(yīng)付干旱的方法，沒講到shallow root Storage選項(xiàng)同樣在第二段第二句剛講到分類的時(shí)候就說了，屬于perennial

　　Minimization選項(xiàng)原文完全沒講到，不是任何一個(gè)category的選項(xiàng)

　　Short選項(xiàng)同樣在第二段第二句剛講到分類的時(shí)候就說了，屬于annual

　　Leaves選項(xiàng)在第四段第二句，屬于perennial

　　SUMER AND THE FIRST CITIES OF THE ANCIENT NEAR EAST

　　1. A選項(xiàng)的rainfall和B的melting snow做關(guān)鍵詞定位至第五句，都正確，不選;C的silt

　　確實(shí)講過，但并沒講damaged crops，所以C錯(cuò)，選;D的timber, stone and metals定位至第四句，正確，不選

　　2. 以elite to emerge做關(guān)鍵詞定位至尾句，但這句話的these說明應(yīng)該往前看，上句的this was

　　done說明應(yīng)該繼續(xù)往前，前句說organization of irrigation和building canals非常重要，所以正確答案是D。沒再往前是因?yàn)橐呀?jīng)有答案了。A的new crop沒提，B和C犯了類似的錯(cuò)誤，原文講土壤肥沃，不是人有錢，所以都錯(cuò)

　　3. sustain維持，所以正確答案是maintain，tain做詞根表持有。原文講正式這些導(dǎo)致精英階

　　級(jí)的產(chǎn)生，并通過控制剩余產(chǎn)品來怎么樣自身的存在，其他選項(xiàng)都不好，比如defend自身的存在前提是要受到威脅，而原文根本沒這事兒，promote也不對(duì)，原文沒講elite要擴(kuò)張 4. 兩個(gè)專有名詞做關(guān)鍵詞定位至第二句，說這兩個(gè)族是以temple為中心發(fā)展的，也就是B說的

　　religious buildings，所以答案是B。A和C的urban settlement，D的destroy原文都沒說 5. sovereign統(tǒng)治者，至高無上的，所以正確答案是B。代入，跟sovereign of all other gods

　　并列的是the god of the sky，天神和其他神的什么，可以推出是管其他神的人，就像玉皇大帝和諸神，盡管creator創(chuàng)造者代入也說的算通，但天神不一定能和創(chuàng)造其他神的人并列吧，counselor和defender更不靠譜

　　6. 以appearance of writing做關(guān)鍵詞定位至第一個(gè)括號(hào)之后那句，說越來越復(fù)雜的管理體系

　　導(dǎo)致了writing，所以正確答案是A。B的leaders，C的imports和D的population都不在定位句中，不選

　　7. 以數(shù)字做關(guān)鍵詞定位至第三個(gè)括號(hào)之后那句，整個(gè)句子都是個(gè)例子，由于是目的題，所以往

　　前看，前面的括號(hào)同樣是例子，再往前，說更經(jīng)濟(jì)的方式是用sign不表達(dá)一個(gè)完整單詞而表達(dá)一個(gè)syllable，說到這個(gè)的只有D。A的增長(zhǎng)和衰落時(shí)期，B的larger vocabulary 都沒講，不選;C的logogram雖然講到，但原文沒有說varied widel，所以不選

　　8. 以ancient texts做關(guān)鍵詞定位至最后一句，原文講economic matters predominanted，也

　　就是問題問的most commonl，正確答案是C，其他都沒說

　　9. 以wheel做關(guān)鍵詞定位至第一句，原文講wheel最早是一個(gè)efficient的方法去制作pottery

　　后來才轉(zhuǎn)到transport的，所以正確答案是B，D有一定迷惑性，但注意是后來才有transport的，所以D不對(duì)，其他都沒說

　　10. engraved雕刻的，被牢記的，所以正確答案是A。前綴en使動(dòng)，grave嚴(yán)肅或者墳?zāi)梗筙XX

　　進(jìn)入墳?zāi)梗梢圆聹y(cè)是埋葬或者刻墓碑。代入，原文說一個(gè)在公元前3000年怎么樣的寫字小塊提供了蘇美爾最早的example，代入都說得通，靠詞根和詞匯量吧

　　11. 提取主干，去掉again插入語(yǔ)和which定語(yǔ)從句，得到原文說主要的進(jìn)步是發(fā)現(xiàn)了如果copper

　　跟tin混合，就能夠得到更硬的金屬bronze，所以正確答案是A。B錯(cuò)在沒有講mixing copper with tin;C錯(cuò)在更硬的不是tin，而是bronze;D錯(cuò)在發(fā)生在3500 BCE的不是bronze，而是copper的發(fā)現(xiàn)

　　12. widespread廣泛，所以正確答案是common常見。wide和spread的合成詞，意思上也是兩個(gè)

　　詞意思的組合。代入，原文說這段時(shí)間被稱為Bronze Age，在這段時(shí)間內(nèi)bronze的使用怎么了，既然都叫Bronze Age了，肯定說明bronze在這段時(shí)間內(nèi)使用的多吧，所以也能推出正確答案是D。A和B，還有B和C意思上都有重合，也可以推出三者都不選

　　13. 以a variety of occupations作過渡點(diǎn)，回原文定位到A之后的administrators,

　　craftspeople and merchants，這是一對(duì)具體的職業(yè)，而待插入句中的a variety of occupations是抽象概念，按照先總述后分述的邏輯關(guān)系，正確的插入點(diǎn)是A不是B

　　14. The scarcity選項(xiàng)的前半部分對(duì)應(yīng)第一段的最后，但原文沒講過take charge of trade and

　　imports，所以錯(cuò)，不選

　　The economy選項(xiàng)原文沒講，而且就算是說對(duì)了，因?yàn)橛蠩ridu這樣具體的東西，也不會(huì)成為答案

　　Writing appeared選項(xiàng)對(duì)應(yīng)原文第三段后半部分，正確 Priests選項(xiàng)原文完全沒講，不選

　　The earliest city選項(xiàng)對(duì)應(yīng)原文第二段，正確 The development選項(xiàng)對(duì)應(yīng)原文最后一段，正確