tpo26閱讀答案：Energy and the Industrial Revolution

　　PARAGRAPH 1

　　For years historians have sought to identify crucial elements in the eighteenth-century rise in industry, technology, and economic power Known as the Industrial Revolution, and many give prominence to the problem of energy. Until the eighteenth century, people relied on energy derived from plants as well as animal and human muscle to provide power Increased efficiency in the use of water and wind helped with such tasks as pumping, milling, or sailing. However, by the eighteenth century, Great Britain in particular was experiencing an energy shortage. Wood, the primary source of heat for homes and industries and also used in the iron industry as processed charcoal, was diminishing in supply. Great Britain had large amounts of coal; however, there were not yet efficient means by which to produce mechanical energy or to power machinery. This was to occur with progress in the development of the steam engine. PARAGRAPH 2

　　In the late 1700s James Watt designed an efficient and commercially viable steam engine that was soon applied to a 1 variety of industrial uses as it became cheaper to use. The engine helped solve the problem of draining coal mines of groundwater and increased the production of coal needed to power steam engines elsewhere. A rotary engine attached to the steam engine enabled shafts to be turned and machines to be driven, resulting in mills using steam power to spin and weave cotton. Since the steam engine was fired by coal, the large mills did not need to be located by rivers, as had mills that used water- driven machines. The shift to increased mechanization in cotton production is apparent in the import of raw cotton and the sale of cotton goods. Between 1760 and 1850, the amount of raw cotton imported increased 230 times. Production of British cotton goods increased sixtyfold, and cotton cloth became Great Britain's most important product, accounting for one-half of all exports. The success of the steam engine resulted in increased demands for coal, and the M consequent increase in coal production was made possible as the steam-powered pumps drained water from the ever-deeper coal seams found below the water table.

　　PARAGRAPH 3

　　The availability of steam power and the demands for new machines facilitated the

　　transformation of the iron industry. Charcoal, made from wood and thus in limited supply, was replaced with coal-derived coke (substance left after coal is heated) as steam-driven bellows came into use for producing of raw iron. Impurities were burnt away with the use of coke, producing a high-quality refined iron. Reduced cost was also instrumental in developing steam-powered rolling mills capable of producing finished iron of various shapes and sizes. The resulting boom in the iron industry expanded the annual iron output by more than 170 times between 1740 and 1840, and by the 1850s Great Britain was producing more tons of iron than the rest of the world combined. The developments in the iron industry were in part a response to the demand for more machines and the ever-widening use of higher-quality iron in other industries.

　　PARAGRAPH 4

　　Steam power and iron combined to revolutionize transport, which in turn had further

　　implications. Improvements in road construction and sailing had occurred, but shipping heavy freight over land remained expensive, even with the use of rivers and canals wherever possible. Parallel rails had long been used in j mining operations to move bigger loads, but horses were still the primary source of power. However, the arrival of the steam engine initiated a complete transformation in rail transportation, entrenching and expanding the Industrial Revolution. As transportation improved, distant and larger markets within the

　　nation could be reached, thereby encouraging the development of larger factories to keep pace with increasing sales. Greater productivity and rising demands provided entrepreneurs with profits that could be reinvested to take advantage of new technologies to further expand capacity, or to seek alternative investment opportunities. Also, the availability of jobs in railway Jj construction attracted many rural laborers accustomed to seasonal and temporary employment. When the work was completed, many moved to other construction jobs or to factory work in cities and towns, where they became part of an expanding working class.

　　參考答案

　　PARAGRAPH 1

　　For years historians have sought to identify crucial elements in the eighteenth-century rise in industry, technology, and economic power Known as the Industrial Revolution, and many give prominence to the problem of energy. Until the eighteenth century, people relied on energy derived from plants as well as animal and human muscle to provide power Increased efficiency in the use of water and wind helped with such tasks as pumping, milling, or sailing. However, by the eighteenth century, Great Britain in particular was experiencing an energy shortage. Wood, the primary source of heat for homes and industries and also used in the iron industry as processed charcoal, was diminishing in supply. Great Britain had large amounts of coal; however, there were not yet efficient means by which to produce mechanical energy or to power machinery. This was to occur with progress in the development of the steam engine.

　　1、Why does the author provide the information that "Great Britain had large amounts of coal"? To reject the claim that Britain was facing an energy shortage in the eighteenth century

　　To explain why coal rather than other energy resources became the primary source of heat for homes and industries in eighteenth-century Britain

　　To indicate that Britain's energy shortage was not the result of a lack of fuel

　　To explain why coal mining became an important industry in nineteenth-century

　　2、What was "the problem of energy" that had to be solved to make the Industrial Revolution of the eighteenth century possible?

　　Water and wind could not be used efficiently.

　　There was no efficient way to power machinery.

　　Steam engines required large amounts of coal, which was in short supply.

　　Neither humans nor animals were strong enough to provide the power required for industrial application.

　　PARAGRAPH 2

　　In the late 1700s James Watt designed an efficient and commercially viable steam engine that was soon applied to a 1 variety of industrial uses as it became cheaper to use. The engine helped solve the problem of draining coal mines of groundwater and increased the production of coal needed to power steam engines elsewhere. A rotary engine attached to the steam engine enabled shafts to be turned and machines to be driven, resulting in mills using steam

　　power to spin and weave cotton. Since the steam engine was fired by coal, the large mills did not need to be located by rivers, as had mills that used water- driven machines. The shift to increased mechanization in cotton production is apparent in the import of raw cotton and the sale of cotton goods. Between 1760 and 1850, the amount of raw cotton imported increased 230 times. Production of British cotton goods increased sixtyfold, and cotton cloth became Great Britain's most important product, accounting for one-half of all exports. The success of the steam engine resulted in increased demands for coal, and the M consequent increase in coal production was made possible as the steam-powered pumps drained water from the ever-deeper coal seams found below the water table.

　　3、Which of the following is NOT mentioned in paragraph 2 as a development in cotton mills brought about by Watt's steam engine?

　　The importing of huge quantities of raw cotton by Britain

　　Increased mechanization

　　More possibilities for mill location

　　Smaller mills

　　4、The phrase "apparent in" in the passage is closest in meaning to

　　clearly seen in

　　aid in

　　associated with

　　followed By

　　5、According to paragraph 2, what was Britain's most important export by 1850?

　　Raw cotton

　　Cotton cloth

　　Steam-powered pumps

　　Coal

　　6、The word "consequent" in the passage is closest in meaning to

　　resulting

　　encouraging

　　well documented

　　immediate

　　7、What is the role of paragraph 2 in the passage as a whole?

　　It explains how by increasing the supply of raw materials from other countries, British industries were able to reduce costs and increase production.

　　It explains how the production of mechanical energy and its benefits spread quickly across countries that were linked commercially with Great Britain.

　　It demonstrates why developments in a single industry could not have caused the Industrial Revolution.

　　It illustrates why historians have assigned igreat importance to the issue of energy in the rise of the Industrial Revolution.

　　PARAGRAPH 3

　　The availability of steam power and the demands for new machines facilitated the

　　transformation of the iron industry. Charcoal, made from wood and thus in limited supply, was replaced with coal-derived coke (substance left after coal is heated) as steam-driven bellows came into use for producing of raw iron. Impurities were burnt away with the use of coke, producing a high-quality refined iron. Reduced cost was also instrumental in developing steam-powered rolling mills capable of producing finished iron of various shapes and sizes. The resulting boom in the iron industry expanded the annual iron output by more than 170 times between 1740 and 1840, and by the 1850s Great Britain was producing more tons of iron than the rest of the world combined. The developments in the iron industry were in part a response to the demand for more machines and the ever-widening use of higher-quality iron in other industries.

　　8、According to paragraph 3, why was the use of coke important for the iron industry? It helped make wood into charcoal.

　　It reduced the dependency on steam-powered machines used for the production of iron. It replaced charcoal in the production of raw and refined iron.

　　It powered the machines used to extract coal in coal mines.

　　9、According to paragraph 3, all of the following were true of the iron industry in Great Britain during the 1800s EXCEPT:

　　Steam-driven bellows were used to prHlice raw iron.

　　By the 1850s Britain was the world's largest producer of iron.

　　Steam-powered mills made it possible to produce iron of different shapes and sizes. Greater demand for higher-quality iron increased its price.

　　PARAGRAPH 4

　　Steam power and iron combined to revolutionize transport, which in turn had further

　　implications. Improvements in road construction and sailing had occurred, but shipping heavy freight over land remained expensive, even with the use of rivers and canals wherever possible. Parallel rails had long been used in j mining operations to move bigger loads, but horses were still the primary source of power. ■ However, the arrival of the steam engine initiated a complete transformation in rail transportation, entrenching and expanding the Industrial Revolution. ■ As transportation improved, distant and larger markets within the nation could be reached, thereby encouraging the development of larger factories to keep pace with increasing sales. ■ Greater productivity and rising demands provided entrepreneurs with profits that could be reinvested to take advantage of new technologies to further expand capacity, or to seek alternative investment opportunities. ■ Also, the availability of jobs in railway Jj construction attracted many rural laborers accustomed to seasonal and temporary employment. When the work was completed, many moved to other construction jobs or to factory work in cities and towns, where they became part of an expanding working class.

　　10、The word "initiated" in the passage is closest in meaning to

　　anticipated

　　accelerated

　　spread

　　started

　　11、Paragraph 4 implies which of the following about the transformation in rail transportation? Because railway construction employed mostly rural laborers, unemployment increased among urban workers.

　　It resulted in more trade within the country, but less trade with markets that could be reached only by ocean shipping.

　　It made shipping freight overland to distant markets less expensive.

　　It resulted in higher wages for factory workers.

　　12、The phrase "accustomed to" in the passage is closest in meaning to

　　in need of

　　used to

　　tired of

　　encouraged by

　　13、Look at the four squares [■] that indicate

　　where the following sentence could be added to the passage.

　　The first steam-powered locomotives were slow but they rapidly improved in speed and carrying capacity.

　　14、Direction: An introductory sentence for a brief summary of the passage is provided below. Complete the summary by selecting the THREE answer choices that express the most

　　important ideas in the passage. Some sentences do not belong in the summary because they express ideas that are not presented in the passage or are minor ideas in the passage. This question is worth 2 points.

　　The coming of the Industrial Revolution in eighteenth-century Britain depended on the development of the steam engine to power machinery.

　　Answer Choices

　　A. For years, historians disregarded the issue of energy as a major element in the rise of the Industrial

　　Revolution and focused instead on technological developments and increased production.

　　B. The introduction and growth of steam-powered rail transport was a major factor in Britain's economic expansion during the Industrial Revolution.

　　C. An expansion of the Industrial Revolution outside Great Britain occurred when British industries began to import raw cotton and high-quality iron.

　　D. By 1850, the use of steam power in Britain's mills, mines, and iron industry made Britain a world leader in the production of cotton cloth and iron.

　　E. Since the basic infrastructure was in place, the Industrial Revolution fueled itself with enlarging markets

　　requiring ever more expansion of factories and workforce.

　　F. By the end of the 1800s, railway construction attracted so many laborers that factories could not find enough workers to keep up with increasing sales.

　　tpo26閱讀答案：Energy and the Industrial Revolution

　　能源和工業(yè)革命

　　——翻譯by@英語詞匯精華 陳鵬飛

　　文章詞匯總結(jié)

　　☻steam engine蒸汽機;

　　☻iron industry鋼鐵行業(yè);

　　☻productivity生產(chǎn)力;

　　☻mechanize機械化;

　　☻coal煤

　　☻efficiency效率

　　☻working class工人階級

　　☻Industrial Revolution工業(yè)革命;

　　文章中英文對照

　　For years historians have sought to identify crucial elements in the eighteenth-century rise in industry, technology, and economic power Known as the Industrial Revolution, and many give prominence to the problem of energy. Until the eighteenth century, people relied on energy derived from plants as well as animal and human muscle to provide power. Increased efficiency in the use of water and wind helped with such tasks as pumping, milling, or sailing. However, by the eighteenth century, Great Britain in particular was experiencing an energy shortage. Wood, the primary source of heat for homes and industries and also used in the iron industry as processed charcoal, was diminishing in supply. Great Britain had large amounts of

　　coal; however, there were not yet efficient means by which to produce mechanical energy or to power machinery. This was to occur with progress in the development of the steam engine. 數(shù)年來，歷史學(xué)家一直試圖界定18世紀(jì)工業(yè)革命中工業(yè)、科技、和經(jīng)濟實力崛起的關(guān)鍵因素。很多歷史學(xué)家將之歸功于能源問題。18世紀(jì)之前人們依賴于工廠，畜力和人力來提供動力。水能和風(fēng)能利用效率的不斷提升促進了抽水，碾磨和航海等活動的開展。然而到了18世紀(jì)，尤其是英國經(jīng)歷著能源短缺的困擾。木材是家庭和工業(yè)供暖的主要來源，也被加工成木炭用于鋼鐵行業(yè)，其供應(yīng)正在不斷的減少。英國有大量的煤，然而卻缺乏產(chǎn)生機械能和為機器提供動力的有效方式。這恰好與蒸汽機的崛起的時機相一致. In the late 1700s James Watt designed an efficient and commercially viable steam engine that was soon applied to a variety of industrial uses as it became cheaper to use. The engine helped solve the problem of draining coal mines of groundwater and increased the production of coal needed to power steam engines elsewhere. A rotary engine attached to the steam engine

　　enabled shafts to be turned and machines to be driven, resulting in mills using steam power to spin and weave cotton. Since the steam engine was fired by coal, the large mills did not need to be located by rivers, as had mills that used water- driven machines. The shift to increased mechanization in cotton production is apparent in the import of raw cotton and the sale of cotton goods. Between 1760 and 1850, the amount of raw cotton imported increased 230 times. Production of British cotton goods increased sixtyfold, and cotton cloth became Great Britain’s most important product, accounting for one-half of all exports. The success of the steam engine resulted in increased demands for coal, and the consequent increase in coal production was made possible as the steam-powered pumps drained water from the ever-deeper coal seams found below the water table.

　　在18世紀(jì)晚期，詹姆斯瓦特發(fā)明了高效而又商業(yè)上可行的蒸汽機。隨著蒸汽機越來越便宜，它被廣泛運用各個工業(yè)領(lǐng)域。這個機器解決了煤礦地下水的排水問題，增加了可以給其他的蒸汽機提供能量的煤的產(chǎn)量。在蒸汽機上附加轉(zhuǎn)輪發(fā)動機就能使轉(zhuǎn)動軸轉(zhuǎn)動，從而驅(qū)動機器工作，這樣工廠就可以利用蒸汽機來紡織和織棉花。因為蒸汽機靠煤來驅(qū)動，大的工廠就不需要依河而建，因為有些工廠使用水驅(qū)動的機器。棉花生產(chǎn)的機械化不斷增加，這一轉(zhuǎn)變在原棉的進口和棉制品的銷售上凸顯出來。在1760年和1850年間，原棉進口量增加了230倍。英國的棉制品產(chǎn)量增加了60倍，棉布成為英國最重

　　要的產(chǎn)品，占總出口的一半。蒸汽機的成功導(dǎo)致煤需求的增長。隨著蒸汽驅(qū)動的水泵從不斷深入的地下水位以下的煤層中抽水，煤的產(chǎn)量的進一步增長便成為可能。 The availability of steam power and the demands for new machines facilitated the

　　transformation of the iron industry. Charcoal, made from wood and thus in limited supply, was replaced with coal-derived coke (substance left after coal is heated) as steam-driven bellows came into use for producing of raw iron. Impurities were burnt away with the use of coke, producing a high-quality refined iron. Reduced cost was also instrumental in developing steam-powered rolling mills capable of producing finished iron of various shapes and sizes. The resulting boom in the iron industry expanded the annual iron output by more than 170 times between 1740 and 1840, and by the 1850s Great Britain was producing more tons of iron than the rest of the world combined. The developments in the iron industry were in part a response to the demand for more machines and the ever-widening use of higher-quality iron in other industries.

　　蒸汽動力的有效性和對新機器的需求促進了鋼鐵行業(yè)的轉(zhuǎn)型。木炭由木材制成，因此供應(yīng)量有限，隨著蒸汽驅(qū)動的風(fēng)箱被用于生鐵的生產(chǎn)，木炭已經(jīng)被從煤中提煉的焦煤(煤加熱后遺留的物質(zhì))所替代。因為焦煤的使用，生鐵中的雜質(zhì)被燃燒完，從而生產(chǎn)出高質(zhì)量的精煉鐵。降低的成本又能促進蒸汽驅(qū)動的鋼鐵軋鋼廠的發(fā)展，這些軋鋼廠能夠生產(chǎn)各種樣式和大小的成品鋼鐵。鋼鐵行業(yè)的繁榮使鋼鐵的產(chǎn)量在1740年到1840年期間增長170了多倍。到19世紀(jì)五十年代，英國生產(chǎn)的鋼鐵比世界其他地區(qū)的生產(chǎn)鋼鐵的總和還要高。鋼鐵行業(yè)的發(fā)展部分是由于其他行業(yè)對于機器需求的增加和高質(zhì)量的鋼鐵在其他行業(yè)的越來越廣泛的應(yīng)用。

　　Steam power and iron combined to revolutionize transport, which in turn had further

　　implications. Improvements in road construction and sailing had occurred, but shipping heavy freight over land remained expensive, even with the use of rivers and canals wherever possible. Parallel rails had long been used in mining operations to move bigger loads, but horses were still the primary source of power. ■However, the arrival of the steam engine initiated a complete transformation in rail transportation, entrenching and expanding the Industrial Revolution. ■As transportation improved, distant and larger markets within the nation could be reached, thereby encouraging the development of larger factories to keep pace with increasing sales. ■Greater productivity and rising demands provided entrepreneurs with

　　profits that could be reinvested to take advantage of new technologies to further expand capacity, or to seek alternative investment opportunities. ■Also, the availability of jobs in railway construction attracted many rural laborers accustomed to seasonal and temporary employment. When the work was completed, many moved to other construction jobs or to factory work in cities and towns, where they became part of an expanding working class. 蒸汽動力和鋼鐵使交通運輸發(fā)生了徹底的變革，而交通運輸反過來對蒸汽動力和鋼鐵也產(chǎn)生了進一步的影響。道路建設(shè)和航海的改善已經(jīng)初步成效，但是船運輸重型貨物到陸地仍然很昂貴，即使在可以用到河流和運河的地方。并行鐵路早已被使用于采礦作業(yè)來運輸更大的負(fù)重物，但是馬仍然是那是主要的動力源。然而，蒸汽機的到來引發(fā)了鐵路運輸?shù)膹氐鬃兏铮柟毯蛿U大了工業(yè)革命的成果。隨著交通運輸?shù)母纳疲藗兙湍軌蜻M入到國內(nèi)遠(yuǎn)處的更大的市場，鼓勵大型的工廠的生產(chǎn)跟上增長的銷售的步伐。不斷提高的生產(chǎn)力和不斷增加的需求給企業(yè)家提供了利潤，這種利潤可以再投資于新技術(shù)，進一步擴大產(chǎn)能或?qū)で笃渌耐顿Y機會。鐵路建設(shè)中所產(chǎn)生的工作機會吸引了很多農(nóng)村的勞動力來適應(yīng)于季節(jié)性的臨時性的工作。當(dāng)工作被完成后，很多勞動力又轉(zhuǎn)到到其他的建造的工作或者在城市和城鎮(zhèn)的工廠工作。在那里，他們成為不斷擴大的工人階級的一部分。

　　Survival of Plants and Animals in Desert Conditions

　　PARAGRAPH 1

　　The harsh conditions in deserts are intolerable for most plants and animals. Despite these conditions, however, many varieties of plants and animals have adapted to deserts in a

　　number of ways. Most plant tissues die if their water content falls too low: the nutrients that feed plants are transmitted by water; water is a raw material in the vital process of

　　photosynthesis; and water regulates the temperature of a plant by its ability to absorb heat and because water vapor lost to the atmosphere through the leaves helps to lower plant

　　temperatures. Water controls the volume of plant matter produced. The distribution of plants within different areas of desert is also controlled by water. Some areas, because of their soil texture, topographical position, or distance from rivers or groundwater, have virtually no water available to plants, whereas others do.

　　PARAGRAPH 2

　　The nature of plant life in deserts is also highly dependent on the fact that they have to adapt to the prevailing aridity. There are two general classes of vegetation: long-lived perennials, which may be succulent (water-storing) and are often dwarfed and woody, and annuals or ephemerals, which have a short life cycle and may form a fairly dense stand immediately after rain.

　　PARAGRAPH 3

　　The ephemeral plants evade drought. Given a year of favorable precipitation, such plants will develop vigorously and produce large numbers of flowers and fruit. This replenishes the seed content of the desert soil. The seeds then lie dormant until the next wet year, when the desert blooms again.

　　PARAGRAPH 4

　　The perennial vegetation adjusts to the aridity by mear of various avoidance mechanisms. Most desert plants are 11 probably best classified as xerophytes. They possess

　　drought-resisting adaptations: loss of water through the leaves is reduced by means of dense hairs covering waxy leaf surfaces, by the closure of pores during the hottest times to reduce water loss, am by the rolling up or shedding of leaves at the beginning of the dry season.

　　Some xerophytes, the succulents (including cacti), store water in their structures. Another way of countering drought is to have a limited amount of mass above ground and to have extensive root networks below ground. It is not unusual for the roots of some desert perennials to extend downward more than ten meters. Some plants are woody in type — an adaptation designed to prevent collapse of the plant tissue when water stress produces wilting. Another class of desert plant is the phreatophyte. These have adapted to the environment by the development of long taproots that penetrate downward until they approach the assured water supply provided by groundwater. Among these plants are the date palm, tamarisk, and mesquite. They commonly grow near stream channels, springs, or on the margins of lakes.

　　PARAGRAPH 5

　　Animals also have to adapt to desert conditions, and they may do it through two forms of behavioral adaptation: they either escape or retreat. Escape involves such actions as

　　aestivation, a condition of prolonged dormancy, or torpor, during which animals reduce their metabolic rate and body temperature during the hot season or during very dry spells. PARAGRAPH 6

　　Seasonal migration is another form of escape, especially for large mammals or birds. The term retreat is applied I to the short-term escape behavior of desert animals, and it usually assumes the pattern of a daily rhythm. Birds shelter in nests, rock overhangs, trees, and dense shrubs to avoid the hottest hours of the day, while mammals like the kangaroo rat burrow underground.

　　PARAGRAPH 7

　　Some animals have behavioral, physiological, and morphological (structural) adaptations that enable them to withstand extreme conditions. For example, the ostrich has 1 plumage that is so constructed that the feathers are long but not \ too dense. When conditions are hot, the ostrich erects them on its 1 back, thus increasing the thickness of the barrier between solar radiation and the skin. The sparse distribution of the feathers, however, also allows

　　considerable lateral air movement over the skin surface, thereby permitting further heat loss by convection.Furthermore, the birds orient themselves carefully with regard to the Sun an0 gently flap their wings to increase convection cooling.

　　參考答案

　　PARAGRAPH 1

　　The harsh conditions in deserts are intolerable for most plants and animals. Despite these conditions, however, many varieties of plants and animals have adapted to deserts in a

　　number of ways. Most plant tissues die if their water content falls too low: the nutrients that feed plants are transmitted by water; water is a raw material in the vital process of

　　photosynthesis; and water regulates the temperature of a plant by its ability to absorb heat and because water vapor lost to the atmosphere through the leaves helps to lower plant

　　temperatures. Water controls the volume of plant matter produced. The distribution of plants within different areas of desert is also controlled by water. Some areas, because of their soil

　　texture, topographical position, or distance from rivers or groundwater, have virtually no water available to plants, whereas others do.

　　1、According to paragraph 1, water provides all of the following essential functions for plants EXCEPT

　　improving plants' ability to absorb sunlight

　　preventing plants from becoming overheated

　　transporting nutrients

　　serving as a raw material for photosynthesis

　　PARAGRAPH 3

　　The ephemeral plants evade drought. Given a year of favorable precipitation, such plants will develop vigorously and produce large numbers of flowers and fruit. This replenishes the seed content of the desert soil. The seeds then lie dormant until the next wet year, when the desert blooms again.

　　2、Paragraph 3 suggests that during a dry year ephemerals

　　produce even more seeds than in a wet year

　　do not sprout from their seeds

　　bloom much later than in a wet year

　　are more plentiful than perennials

　　PARAGRAPH 2

　　The nature of plant life in deserts is also highly dependent on the fact that they have to adapt to the prevailing aridity. There are two general classes of vegetation: long-lived perennials, which may be succulent (water-storing) and are often dwarfed and woody, and annuals or ephemerals, which have a short life cycle and may form a fairly dense stand immediately after rain.

　　PARAGRAPH 3

　　The ephemeral plants evade drought. Given a year of favorable precipitation, such plants will develop vigorously and produce large numbers of flowers and fruit. This replenishes the seed

　　content of the desert soil. The seeds then lie dormant until the next wet year, when the desert blooms again.

　　3、How is paragraph 2 related to paragraph 3?

　　Paragraph 2 provides a general description of desc plants, and paragraph 3 provides a scientific explanation for these observations.

　　Paragraph 2 divides desert plants into two categories, and paragraph 3 provides further information about one of these categories.

　　Paragraph 2 proposes one way of dividing desert plants into categories, and paragraph 3 explains one problem with this method of classification.

　　Paragraph 2 discusses two categories of desert plants, and paragraph 3 introduces a third category of plants.

　　4、In saying that ephemerals will develop "vigorously" when there is favorable precipitation, the author means that their development will be

　　sudden

　　early

　　gradual

　　strong

　　healthy

　　PARAGRAPH 4

　　The perennial vegetation adjusts to the aridity by mear of various avoidance mechanisms. Most desert plants are 11 probably best classified as xerophytes. They possess

　　drought-resisting adaptations: loss of water through the leaves is reduced by means of dense hairs covering waxy leaf surfaces, by the closure of pores during the hottest times to reduce water loss, am by the rolling up or shedding of leaves at the beginning of the dry season.

　　Some xerophytes, the succulents (including cacti), store water in their structures. Another way of countering drought is to have a limited amount of mass above ground and to have extensive root networks below ground. It is not unusual for the roots of some desert perennials to extend downward more than ten meters. Some plants are woody in type — an adaptation designed to prevent collapse of the plant tissue when water stress produces wilting. Another class of

　　desert plant is the phreatophyte. These have adapted to the environment by the development of long taproots that penetrate downward until they approach the assured water supply provided by groundwater. Among these plants are the date palm, tamarisk, and mesquite. They commonly grow near stream channels, springs, or on the margins of lakes.

　　5、The word "countering" in the passage is closest in meaning to

　　eliminating

　　making use of

　　acting against

　　experiencing

　　6、According to paragraph 4, some desert plants with root systems that are extraordinarily well developed have

　　relatively little growth aboveground

　　very leafy aboveground structures

　　nonwoody plant tissue resistant to wilting

　　water stored within their roots

　　7、The word "assured" in the passage is closest in meaning to

　　pure

　　diminished

　　guaranteed

　　deep

　　8、What do "the date palm, tamarisk, and mesquite" have in common?

　　They are always found together.

　　They depend on surface water provided by streams, springs, and lakes.

　　They are phreatophytes.

　　Their roots are capable of breaking through hard soils

　　PARAGRAPH 5

　　Animals also have to adapt to desert conditions, and they may do it through two forms of behavioral adaptation: they either escape or retreat. Escape involves such actions as

　　content of the desert soil. The seeds then lie dormant until the next wet year, when the desert blooms again.

　　3、How is paragraph 2 related to paragraph 3?

　　Paragraph 2 provides a general description of desc plants, and paragraph 3 provides a scientific explanation for these observations.

　　Paragraph 2 divides desert plants into two categories, and paragraph 3 provides further information about one of these categories.

　　Paragraph 2 proposes one way of dividing desert plants into categories, and paragraph 3 explains one problem with this method of classification.

　　Paragraph 2 discusses two categories of desert plants, and paragraph 3 introduces a third category of plants.

　　4、In saying that ephemerals will develop "vigorously" when there is favorable precipitation, the author means that their development will be

　　sudden

　　early

　　gradual

　　strong

　　healthy

　　PARAGRAPH 4

　　The perennial vegetation adjusts to the aridity by mear of various avoidance mechanisms. Most desert plants are 11 probably best classified as xerophytes. They possess

　　drought-resisting adaptations: loss of water through the leaves is reduced by means of dense hairs covering waxy leaf surfaces, by the closure of pores during the hottest times to reduce water loss, am by the rolling up or shedding of leaves at the beginning of the dry season.

　　Some xerophytes, the succulents (including cacti), store water in their structures. Another way of countering drought is to have a limited amount of mass above ground and to have extensive root networks below ground. It is not unusual for the roots of some desert perennials to extend downward more than ten meters. Some plants are woody in type — an adaptation designed to prevent collapse of the plant tissue when water stress produces wilting. Another class of

　　desert plant is the phreatophyte. These have adapted to the environment by the development of long taproots that penetrate downward until they approach the assured water supply provided by groundwater. Among these plants are the date palm, tamarisk, and mesquite. They commonly grow near stream channels, springs, or on the margins of lakes.

　　5、The word "countering" in the passage is closest in meaning to

　　eliminating

　　making use of

　　acting against

　　experiencing

　　6、According to paragraph 4, some desert plants with root systems that are extraordinarily well developed have

　　relatively little growth aboveground

　　very leafy aboveground structures

　　nonwoody plant tissue resistant to wilting

　　water stored within their roots

　　7、The word "assured" in the passage is closest in meaning to

　　pure

　　diminished

　　guaranteed

　　deep

　　8、What do "the date palm, tamarisk, and mesquite" have in common?

　　They are always found together.

　　They depend on surface water provided by streams, springs, and lakes.

　　They are phreatophytes.

　　Their roots are capable of breaking through hard soils

　　PARAGRAPH 5

　　Animals also have to adapt to desert conditions, and they may do it through two forms of behavioral adaptation: they either escape or retreat. Escape involves such actions as

　　content of the desert soil. The seeds then lie dormant until the next wet year, when the desert blooms again.

　　3、How is paragraph 2 related to paragraph 3?

　　Paragraph 2 provides a general description of desc plants, and paragraph 3 provides a scientific explanation for these observations.

　　Paragraph 2 divides desert plants into two categories, and paragraph 3 provides further information about one of these categories.

　　Paragraph 2 proposes one way of dividing desert plants into categories, and paragraph 3 explains one problem with this method of classification.

　　Paragraph 2 discusses two categories of desert plants, and paragraph 3 introduces a third category of plants.

　　4、In saying that ephemerals will develop "vigorously" when there is favorable precipitation, the author means that their development will be

　　sudden

　　early

　　gradual

　　strong

　　healthy

　　PARAGRAPH 4

　　The perennial vegetation adjusts to the aridity by mear of various avoidance mechanisms. Most desert plants are 11 probably best classified as xerophytes. They possess

　　drought-resisting adaptations: loss of water through the leaves is reduced by means of dense hairs covering waxy leaf surfaces, by the closure of pores during the hottest times to reduce water loss, am by the rolling up or shedding of leaves at the beginning of the dry season.

　　Some xerophytes, the succulents (including cacti), store water in their structures. Another way of countering drought is to have a limited amount of mass above ground and to have extensive root networks below ground. It is not unusual for the roots of some desert perennials to extend downward more than ten meters. Some plants are woody in type — an adaptation designed to prevent collapse of the plant tissue when water stress produces wilting. Another class of

　　desert plant is the phreatophyte. These have adapted to the environment by the development of long taproots that penetrate downward until they approach the assured water supply provided by groundwater. Among these plants are the date palm, tamarisk, and mesquite. They commonly grow near stream channels, springs, or on the margins of lakes.

　　5、The word "countering" in the passage is closest in meaning to

　　eliminating

　　making use of

　　acting against

　　experiencing

　　6、According to paragraph 4, some desert plants with root systems that are extraordinarily well developed have

　　relatively little growth aboveground

　　very leafy aboveground structures

　　nonwoody plant tissue resistant to wilting

　　water stored within their roots

　　7、The word "assured" in the passage is closest in meaning to

　　pure

　　diminished

　　guaranteed

　　deep

　　8、What do "the date palm, tamarisk, and mesquite" have in common?

　　They are always found together.

　　They depend on surface water provided by streams, springs, and lakes.

　　They are phreatophytes.

　　Their roots are capable of breaking through hard soils

　　PARAGRAPH 5

　　Animals also have to adapt to desert conditions, and they may do it through two forms of behavioral adaptation: they either escape or retreat. Escape involves such actions as

　　aestivation, a condition of prolonged dormancy, or torpor, during which animals reduce their metabolic rate and body temperature during the hot season or during very dry spells.

　　9、Which of the sentences below best expresses the essential information in the highlighted 1 sentence in the passage? Incorrect choices change the meaning in important ways or leave out essential information.

　　One way animals escape is by entering a state of extended dormancy, known as aestivation, during the hottest and driest times of year.

　　Animals can escape without using direct action, or aestivation, simply by reducing their metabolic rate and body temperature.

　　The actions that an animal uses to escape are known as aestivation, which sometimes involves a reduction in metabolic rate or body temperature.

　　When the weather is especially hot and dry, an animal may suffer from a condition known as aestivation, at which point the animal needs to escape.

　　10、It can be inferred from paragraph 5 that all of the places desert animals retreat to provide shade from the sun

　　sometimes become crowded

　　are places where supplies of food are plentiful

　　leave the animals vulnerable to predators

　　PARAGRAPH 7

　　Some animals have behavioral, physiological, and morphological (structural) adaptations that enable them to withstand extreme conditions. For example, the ostrich has 1 plumage that is so constructed that the feathers are long but not \ too dense. When conditions are hot, the ostrich erects them on its 1 back, thus increasing the thickness of the barrier between solar radiation and the skin. The sparse distribution of the feathers, however, also allows

　　considerable lateral air movement over the skin surface, thereby permitting further heat loss by convection.Furthermore, the birds orient themselves carefully with regard to the Sun an0 gently flap their wings to increase convection cooling.

　　11、According to paragraph 7, what special adaptation helps the ostrich cope with hot desert conditions?

　　Each of its feathers is very short and dense.

　　Its wings produce only lateral air movement when flapping.

　　Its feathers are very thickly set on both its back and its wings.

　　It can make its feathers stand up on its If back.

　　12、Look at the four squares [ ] that indicate where the following sentence could be added to the passage.

　　The increase in reward still did not attract young people to this hard life, and convicted criminals and slaves were pressed into services

　　Where would the sentence best fit?

　　PARAGRAPH 1

　　The harsh conditions in deserts are intolerable for most plants and animals. Despite these conditions, however, many varieties of plants and animals have adapted to deserts in a

　　number of ways. Most plant tissues die if their water content falls too low: the nutrients that feed plants are transmitted by water; water is a raw material in the vital process of

　　photosynthesis; and water regulates the temperature of a plant by its ability to absorb heat and because water vapor lost to the atmosphere through the leaves helps to lower plant

　　temperatures. ■ Water controls the volume of plant matter produced. ■ The distribution of plants within different areas of desert is also controlled by water. ■ Some areas, because of their soil texture, topographical position, or distance from rivers or groundwater, have virtually no water available to plants, whereas others do. ■